Transferability study of the BINACLE (binding and cleavage) assay for in vitro determination of botulinum neurotoxin activity.

The muscle-relaxing effects of the botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) serotypes A and B are widely used in clinical and aesthetic medicine. The standard method for measuring the biological activity of pharmaceutical BoNT products is a mouse bioassay. In line with the European Directive 2010/63/EU, a replacement by an animal-free method would be desirable. Whereas the existing approved in vitro methods for BoNT activity measurements are product-specific and not freely available for all users, the "binding and cleavage" (BINACLE) assay could become a widely applicable alternative. This method quantifies active BoNT molecules based on their specific receptor-binding and proteolytic properties and can be applied to all BoNT products on the European market. Here we describe the results of a transferability study, in which identical BoNT samples were tested in the BINACLE assay in four laboratories. All participants successfully performed the method and observed clear dose-response relationships. Assay variability was within an acceptable range. These data indicate that the BoNT BINACLE assay is robust and can be straightforwardly transferred between laboratories. They thus provide an appropriate basis for future studies to further substantiate the suitability of the BINACLE assay for the potency determination of BoNT products.

A novel electrophoretic immunoblot as antigen desorption and quantification method for alum-adjuvanted veterinary rabies vaccines.

Rabies vaccines for domestic animals are adjuvanted with aluminum salts. A particular challenge for in-vitro batch potency tests with these products is the fact that the antigens are firmly adsorbed to the aluminum salt matrix and thus are not easily available for antigen quantification. In the current manuscript we describe a versatile technique to quantify antigens in aluminum adsorbed vaccine formulations. A combined electrophoretic desorption and blotting method is presented that transfers the antigens to a nitrocellulose membrane followed by an immunoblot quantification of the transferred rabies antigens. For the immunoblot a rabies G-protein specific, monoclonal antibody is used that by itself has neutralizing activity. This ensures that only relevant antigens are quantified. By comparing end products with non-adjuvanted in-process material it can be demonstrated that the antigens are quantitatively desorbed from the adjuvant matrix. Resuts of the new antigen quantification method were compared with the outcome of the serological batch potency test as described in the European Pharmacopoeia. It is demonstrated that the new antigen quantification method reveals relevant differences between experimental vaccine batches formulated with increasing antigen loads. This proves the broad detection range of the method. In general, the results show that this highly versatile technique can serve as an important component of a comprehensive consistency test strategy and may be applied in a modified form to any alum-adjuvanted vaccine.

Is the test for irreversibility of tetanus toxoids still relevant?

Tetanus vaccines for human and veterinary use are based on toxoids resulting from a formaldehyde-mediated inactivation of tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT). Due to the high toxicity of TeNT, safety tests are mandatory for each batch of these toxoids. One of the tests addresses the irreversibility of inactivation: The toxoid is stored at 37 °C for 6 weeks and then subjected to in vivo toxicity testing. However, we found that TeNT solutions rapidly lose their activity at 37 °C. Accordingly, any active TeNT molecules arising in the toxoid due to reversion events may no longer be detectable after the 37 °C storage period. Furthermore, there is no evidence that a "reversion to toxicity" has ever been observed for tetanus toxoids during vaccine production. Thus, we conclude that the irreversibility test that is prescribed for human and veterinary vaccines has no relevance for vaccine safety.

In vitro potency determination of botulinum neurotoxin serotype A based on its receptor-binding and proteolytic characteristics.

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) inhibit the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from motor neurons, resulting in highly effective muscle relaxation. In clinical and aesthetic medicine, serotype BoNT/A, which is most potent for humans, is widely used to treat a continuously increasing spectrum of disorders associated with muscle overactivity. Because of the high toxicity associated with BoNTs, it is mandatory to precisely determine the potency of every batch produced for pharmaceutical purposes. Here we report a new quantitative functional in vitro assay for BoNT/A. In this binding and cleavage (BINACLE) assay, the toxin is first bound to specific receptor molecules. Then a chemical reduction is performed, thereby releasing the light chain of BoNT/A and activating its proteolytic domain. The activated light chain is finally exposed to its substrate protein SNAP-25, and the fragment resulting from the proteolytic cleavage of this protein is quantified in an antibody-mediated reaction. The BoNT/A BINACLE assay offers high specificity and sensitivity with a detection limit below 0.5 mouse lethal dose (LD50)/ml. In conclusion, this new in vitro assay for determining BoNT/A toxicity represents an alternative to the LD50 test in mice, which is the "gold standard" method for the potency testing of BoNT/A products.

Inactivated Recombinant Rabies Viruses Displaying Canine Distemper Virus Glycoproteins Induce Protective Immunity against Both Pathogens.

The development of multivalent vaccines is an attractive methodology for the simultaneous prevention of several infectious diseases in vulnerable populations. Both canine distemper virus (CDV) and rabies virus (RABV) cause lethal disease in wild and domestic carnivores. While RABV vaccines are inactivated, the live-attenuated CDV vaccines retain residual virulence for highly susceptible wildlife species. In this study, we developed recombinant bivalent vaccine candidates based on recombinant vaccine strain rabies virus particles, which concurrently display the protective CDV and RABV glycoprotein antigens. The recombinant viruses replicated to near-wild-type titers, and the heterologous glycoproteins were efficiently expressed and incorporated in the viral particles. Immunization of ferrets with beta-propiolactone-inactivated recombinant virus particles elicited protective RABV antibody titers, and animals immunized with a combination of CDV attachment protein- and fusion protein-expressing recombinant viruses were protected from lethal CDV challenge. However, animals that were immunized with only a RABV expressing the attachment protein of CDV vaccine strain Onderstepoort succumbed to infection with a more recent wild-type strain, indicating that immune responses to the more conserved fusion protein contribute to protection against heterologous CDV strains.IMPORTANCE Rabies virus and canine distemper virus (CDV) cause high mortality rates and death in many carnivores. While rabies vaccines are inactivated and thus have an excellent safety profile and high stability, live-attenuated CDV vaccines can retain residual virulence in highly susceptible species. Here we generated recombinant inactivated rabies viruses that carry one of the CDV glycoproteins on their surface. Ferrets immunized twice with a mix of recombinant rabies viruses carrying the CDV fusion and attachment glycoproteins were protected from lethal CDV challenge, whereas all animals that received recombinant rabies viruses carrying only the CDV attachment protein according to the same immunization scheme died. Irrespective of the CDV antigens used, all animals developed protective titers against rabies virus, illustrating that a bivalent rabies virus-based vaccine against CDV induces protective immune responses against both pathogens.

Quantification of Lyssavirus-Neutralizing Antibodies Using Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Pseudotype Particles.

Rabies is a highly fatal zoonotic disease which is primarily caused by rabies virus (RABV) although other members of the genus Lyssavirus can cause rabies as well. As yet, 14 serologically and genetically diverse lyssaviruses have been identified, mostly in bats. To assess the quality of rabies vaccines and immunoglobulin preparations, virus neutralization tests with live RABV are performed in accordance with enhanced biosafety standards. In the present work, a novel neutralization test is presented which takes advantage of a modified vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) from which the glycoprotein G gene has been deleted and replaced by reporter genes. This single-cycle virus was trans-complemented with RABV envelope glycoprotein. Neutralization of this pseudotype virus with RABV reference serum or immune sera from vaccinated mice showed a strong correlation with the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT). Importantly, pseudotype viruses containing the envelope glycoproteins of other lyssaviruses were neutralized by reference serum to a significantly lesser extent or were not neutralized at all. Taken together, a pseudotype virus system has been successfully developed which allows the safe, fast, and sensitive detection of neutralizing antibodies directed against different lyssaviruses.

In vitro potency determination of botulinum neurotoxin B based on its receptor-binding and proteolytic characteristics.

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the most potent toxins known. However, the paralytic effect caused by BoNT serotypes A and B is taken advantage of to treat different forms of dystonia and in cosmetic procedures. Due to the increasing areas of application, the demand for BoNTs A and B is rising steadily. Because of the high toxicity, it is mandatory to precisely determine the potency of every produced BoNT batch, which is usually accomplished by performing toxicity testing (LD50 test) in mice. Here we describe an alternative in vitro assay for the potency determination of the BoNT serotype B. In this assay, the toxin is first bound to its specific receptor molecules. After the proteolytic subunit of the toxin has been released and activated by chemical reduction, it is exposed to synaptobrevin, its substrate protein. Finally the proteolytic cleavage is quantified by an antibody-mediated detection of the neoepitope, reaching a detection limit below 0.1mouseLD50/ml. Thus, the assay, named BoNT/B binding and cleavage assay (BoNT/B BINACLE), takes into account the binding as well as the protease function of the toxin, thereby measuring its biological activity.

"BINACLE" assay for in vitro detection of active tetanus neurotoxin in toxoids.

Tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) consists of two protein chains connected by a disulfide linkage: The heavy chain mediates the toxin binding and uptake by neurons, whereas the light chain cleaves synaptobrevin and thus blocks neurotransmitter release.Chemically inactivated TeNT (tetanus toxoid) is utilized for the production of tetanus vaccines. For safety reasons, each toxoid bulk has to be tested for the "absence of toxin and irreversibility of toxoid". To date, these mandatory tests are performed as toxicity tests in guinea pigs. A replacement by an animal-free method for the detection of TeNT would be desirable. The BINACLE (BINding And CLEavage) assay takes into account the receptor-binding as well as the proteolytic characteristics of TeNT: The toxin is bound to immobilized receptor molecules, the light chains are then released by reduction and transferred to a microplate containing synaptobrevin, and the fragment resulting from TeNT-induced cleavage is finally detected. This assay offers a higher specificity for discriminating between toxic TeNT and inactivated toxoid molecules than other published assays. Validation studies have shown that the BINACLE assay allows the sensitive and robust detection of TeNT in toxoids, and thus may indeed represent a suitable alternative to the prescribed animal safety tests for toxoids from several European vaccine manufacturers. Product-specific validations (and possibly adaptations) of the assay protocol will be required. A European collaborative study is currently being initiated to further examine the applicability of the method for toxoid testing. The final aim is the inclusion of the method into the European Pharmacopoeia.

Results of an international transferability study of the BINACLE (binding and cleavage) assay for in vitro detection of tetanus toxicity.

Tetanus vaccines contain detoxified tetanus neurotoxin. In order to check for residual toxicity, the detoxified material (toxoid) has to be tested in guinea pigs. These tests are time-consuming and raise animal welfare issues. In line with the "3R" principles of replacing, reducing and refining animal tests, the "binding and cleavage" (BINACLE) assay for detection of active tetanus neurotoxin has been developed as a potential alternative to toxicity testing in animals. This in vitro test system can discriminate well between toxic and detoxified toxin molecules based on their receptor-binding and proteolytic characteristics. Here we describe an international study to assess the transferability of the BINACLE assay. We show that all participating laboratories were able to successfully perform the assay. Generally, assay variability was within an acceptable range. A toxin concentration-dependent increase of assay signals was observed in all tests. Furthermore, participants were able to detect low tetanus neurotoxin concentrations close to the estimated in vivo detection limit. In conclusion, the data from this study indicate that the methodology of the BINACLE assay seems to be robust, reproducible and easily transferable between laboratories. These findings substantiate our notion that the method can be suitable for the routine testing of tetanus toxoids.

Binding and cleavage (BINACLE) assay for the functional in vitro detection of tetanus toxin: applicability as alternative method for the safety testing of tetanus toxoids during vaccine production.

Tetanus toxoids (i.e. chemically inactivated preparations of tetanus neurotoxin) are used for the production of tetanus vaccines. In order to exclude the risk of residual toxicity or of a "reversion to toxicity", each batch of tetanus toxoid is subject to strict safety testing. Up to now, these prescribed safety tests have to be performed as in vivo toxicity tests in guinea pigs. However, as animal tests are generally slow, costly and ethically disputable, a replacement by an in vitro method would be desirable. A suitable alternative method would have to be able to sensitively detect already low concentrations of active tetanus neurotoxin in matrices containing large amounts of inactivated toxoid molecules. We have developed a method which detects active tetanus neurotoxin molecules based on their specific receptor-binding capacity as well as their proteolytic activity. By taking into account two relevant functional characteristics, this combined "BINding And CLEavage" (BINACLE) assay more reliably discriminates between toxic and detoxified molecules than other in vitro assays which solely rely on one single toxin function (e.g. endopeptidase assays). Data from an in-house validation show that the BINACLE assay is able to detect active tetanus neurotoxin with a detection limit comparable to the in vivo test. The sensitive detection of active toxin which has been spiked into toxoid samples from different manufacturers could also be demonstrated. Specificity and precision of the method have been shown to be satisfactory. The presented data indicate that for toxoid batches from some of the most relevant European vaccine manufacturers, the BINACLE assay may represent a potential alternative to the prescribed animal safety tests. In addition, this novel method may also provide a convenient tool for monitoring batch-to-batch consistency during toxoid production.

A multi-dose serological assay suitable to quantify the potency of inactivated rabies vaccines for veterinary use.

The mouse vaccination-challenge test, which is the most widely used method for determining the potency of inactivated rabies vaccines, is imprecise, time-consuming, and causes severe distress to the test animals. An alternative single-dose serological method has been implemented in the European Pharmacopoeia Monograph 0451 to replace the mouse challenge test for batch release. This single-dose limit method provides semi-quantitative results, but is not suitable for quantifying potency. We have now extended this serological method to a multi-dose format which allows a quantification of vaccine potency. In studies including all rabies vaccine strains relevant for Europe, we found dose-dependency for all vaccines and standard preparations. We have demonstrated that the multi-dose serological approach provides reliable quantitative potency results and is more precise than the mouse vaccination-challenge test. We have shown that adjuvanted vaccines can be calibrated against non-adjuvanted material, and that reference material can be calibrated against the International Standard. The method is therefore capable of assigning potency with the additional advantage of requiring fewer animals and reducing distress. Once the applicability of the method has been further verified in a collaborative study, it can complement the single-dose assay and eventually eliminate the need for the mouse challenge test.

Potency estimation of vaccine batches remains unaffected by anesthesia for intracerebral injection.

Potency testing of rabies and whole-cell pertussis vaccine batches is still performed by an intracerebral (i.c.) challenge test, in conformity with international regulatory requirements. For the i.c. injection, the use of anesthesia is strongly recommended to alleviate the severe pain induced by the procedure. Today, anesthesia is not consistently mentioned in regulatory requirements, in contrast to the times when the potency tests were developed. The introduction of anesthesia is hampered, due to the lack of data on a hypothetical impact of anesthesia on potency estimation. Here, we show the comparative analysis of the extensive batch release data set of a rabies vaccine for human use that was tested in two laboratories of which only one applied anesthesia. In essence, we find that the mean batch test results were similar to each other, demonstrating that anesthesia for i.c. injection does not interfere with potency estimation. Consequently, we recommend the update of regulatory requirements and protocols and support the implementation of anesthesia for i.c. injection.

In vitro determination of tetanus toxicity by an endopeptidase assay linked to a ganglioside-binding step.

Assays for the detection of tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) are relevant for research applications as well as for the safety testing of tetanus vaccines. So far, these assays are usually performed as toxicity tests in guinea pigs or mice. The alternative methods described to date were mostly based on the detection of the toxin's proteolytic activity. However, these endopeptidase assays turned out to be unreliable because they only measure the enzymatic activity as sole determinant of tetanus toxicity, while not taking into account other parameters like the toxin's capacity to bind to target cells. In order to better reflect the in vivo situation of a tetanus infection, we have linked an endopeptidase assay to a ganglioside-binding step. The resulting method, which offers a unique combination of two functionally linked assays, detects those TeNT molecules only which possess both a functional binding domain as well as an active enzymatic domain. Our results demonstrate that this assay is able to reliably detect TeNT, and therefore might provide a basis for the replacement of the animal tests for detection of tetanus toxicity. Moreover, the assay concept could also be useful for in vitro toxicity measurements of other toxins with similar subunit structures.

[Detection of extraneous virus in live vaccines]

In the study in vitro alternatives to a non-validated and harmful animal test for the absence of extraneous virus in live vaccines were investigated. For evaluation of a suitable in vitro method the porcine herpesvirus (Aujeszkyvirus, Pseudorabiesvirus) was used as a model virus. In artificially contaminated live vaccines the aujeszkyvirus could be detected by moleculargenetical and cellular methods. Regarding the threshold values of virus detection in vitro tests showed to be more efficacious than animal testing. Meanwhile the European Pharmacopoeia Commission deleted the animal test for extraneous virus from two monographs. The discussion, if respective animal testing can be cancelled for the other live vaccines as well, is still ongoing. The study was supported by the German Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology.

[How to prove complete virus inactivation in rabies vaccines. A comparison of an in vivo to an in vitro method]

At present, the complete inactivation of rabies virus in rabies vaccines ad us. vet. is proven by an animal experiment which causes severe suffering, the intracerebral injection of mice. This animal experiment yet is not validated. We have quantified the sensitivity of the mouse test and examined whether the animal experiment may be replaced by the immunofluorescence assay (IFT) as an in vitro method. Detection limits of both assays were determined depending on the examined product, i.e. prior to and after the addition of adjuvans and preservative, respectively. Furthermore, symptoms of the rabies desease were recorded and their severity was classified on a range of 1-5. Symptoms of rabies-infected mice were clear and highly specific. Symptoms classified as >/= 2 in context with a loss of >/= 15% of the initial weight were defined as humane endpoints of the desease. The quantitative detection of active virus was not inhibited in the presence of even high concentrations of inactivated virus. The detection limit of the mouse test was 10 viruses ml-1 independent of the examined product. The detection limit of the IFT prior to the addition of adjuvans and preservative was 10 viruses ml-1 as well. After the addition of these substances the detection limit rose to 103 viruses ml-1. Advantages and disadvantages of the mouse test and IFT are discussed.

[Is the abnormal toxicity test still relevant for the safety of vaccines, sera and immunoglobulins?]

The German Pharmacopoeia (DAB) requires the abnormal toxicity test (ATT) using mice and guinea pigs as a non-specific safety test for vaccines, sera and immuno-globulines. The purpose of this project was to investigate the relevance of ATT after the introduction of GMP- and GLP-principles in the manufacturing of biological products. A great variability in the test performance became evident for the different test laboratories, involving the animal number as well as the vaccine dosage administration and test duration. The retrospective analysis of ATT results reveals reasons for the incompatibility of particular preparation groups, vaccine components or additives with the animal species used. There were highly significant differences between the manufacturers and the PEI regarding the frequency of deviating test results for identical test batches. Positive ATT"s never resulted from the insufficient quality of a batch. On the other hand vaccines causing adverse reactions in the target species were not identified by the ATT. For these reasons the abnormal toxicity test is unsuitable to detect harmful batches. The results of the analysis of data show that finally the ATT has always been passed, i.e. there was no retention by the vaccine manufacturers and no refusal by the controlling authorities due to the ATT-results. Considering the present animal model and the questionable transferability of the test results to the target species only a poor reliability is evident. Taking into account aspects of drug safety and animal welfare it is recommended to the DAB to omit the ATT.

[Abnormal toxicity - a relevant safety test under GLP- and GMP-conditions in the production of vaccines?]

The German Pharmacopoeia requires a test for abnormal toxicity in mice and guinea pigs as an unspecific safety test for vaccines and sera. This paper deals with the relevance of abnormal toxicity after the introduction of GMP- and GLP-conditions in the production of veterinary biologicals. Preliminary results: 1.The evidence of the test on abnormal toxicity as a prediction for (harmful) batches is insufficient, because a) the specificity is missing b) misinterpretations of reactions caused by compounds in mice and guinea pigs are possible which are independent of the innocuity of the medical products for the target animal. 2.The concentration of adjuvants and preservatives frequently leads to local and/or generalized symptoms of incompatibility with minor relevance to the target species. 3.The large number of animals used for this test and the suffering during the procedure is not justified in view of the negligible increase of safety of the product. Therefore the test for abnormal toxicity should be removed from the Pharmacopoeia.